chore: resolve remaining conflicts for upstream v0.13.2 sync

[janishorsts]

Third PR in stack: resolves all remaining merge conflicts, protobuf updates, Darwin/cross-compilation fixes, and sync reports for moby/buildkit v0.13.2.

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[github-actions]

🎉 Are we earthbuild yet?

Great progress! You've reduced "earthly" occurrences by 6 (2.76%)

📈 Overall Progress

Branch	Total Count
main	217
This PR	211
Difference	-6 (2.76%)

📁 Changes by file type:

File Type	Change
Go files (.go)	✅ -6
Documentation (.md)	➖ No change
Earthfiles	➖ No change

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Keep up the great work migrating from Earthly to Earthbuild! 🚀

💡 Tips for finding more occurrences

Run locally to see detailed breakdown:

./.github/scripts/count-earthly.sh

Note that the goal is not to reach 0.
There is anticipated to be at least some occurences of earthly in the source code due to backwards compatibility with config files and language constructs.